How was British India established?

jonniebgood1

The British empire comes up regularly here in our discussions on Ireland (naturally enough). However there is of course a huge volume of discussion regarding the empire that may not even mention us. So it may be interesting to look at some aspects of this to try and understand some of the reasons how a small island in western Europe came to rule over such a vast area. The ideological origins of the "British empire" are sometimes traced back to the late 1570's with Elizabeth I philosopher John Dee recording the term in his writings. I am going to use India (the jewel in the crown) as an example but America or South Africa are also in the same vein.
There are a couple of starting point queries that I would make:

-What were conditions in England like at the time in comparison to those in future colonies? Akbar the great* was in control of a powerful empire in India, many time stronger and more prosperous than Britain I would propose. A look at some of the monuments of the Mughals (Taj Mahal, Humayun's Tomb, Moti Masjid) in comparison to similar aged monuments in England (mansions & manor houses) demonstrates this. Eventually the Mughal empire controlled modern day India, Pakistan and Afganistan with principals such as religous tolerance being way ahead of the inequalities in the regions future. So how did Britain get the Mughal leaders to move aside.


-How did Britain gain control of so much territory- Military campaigns?
Co- operation with local commanders?
Terror campaigns?
Slavery?


* Akbar the great- http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/ikram/part2_11.html

dubhthach

Well a big chunk of it of course is due to the East India Company. (Got to love "Private Industry") They basically had their own private army. It only came under "British Imperial" rule in 1858 after the Indian revolt of 1857 (directed against the "company")

Fratton Fred

The only actual "Conquest" as such was (as with a lot of the British empire) from Spain and France rather than indigenous people.

The big gain came from alliances.

CDfm

I would like to know about the Irish involved.

jonniebgood1

CDfm wrote: »

I would like to know about the Irish involved.

Of course. As the early conquests to the indian sub-continent followed shortly after the plantations it will be interesting to see if this led to Irish involvement. It would follow that a person willing to partake in plantation would be of a similar mind to go further into the unknown world.

Much source material on India is from British sources given our geopraphy and an Indian history professor (he claimed- long story...) warned me of this and he did not like what he saw as the British record of their role in India. He quoted Nehru "The man who has gotten everything he wants is all in favor of peace and order". I thought this was a decent observation and one that should be looked at.

Judgement Day

CDfm wrote: »

I would like to know about the Irish involved.

Lord Roberts of Kandahar
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Roberts,_1st_Earl_Roberts

CDfm

I know that one of the Wellesley's was involved - Wellington's brother and probably Wellington himself.

Doesn't Plassy House at UL have some Indian connection.

And there is a first edition of The Rajah from Tipperary for sale on Adverts.ie the true story of George Thomas who was a warlord over there.

http://www.adverts.ie/non-fiction/the-rajah-of-tipperary-first-edition/1016659

Maurice Hennessy who wrote the book reputedly wrote the book on which Alex Haley's Novel Roots was based.

Judgement Day

The same book can be had on Abebooks for about €6 incl.p+p.

jonniebgood1

The late 16th century was when the first British expeditions were made to India. It was a change from Tudor times to Elizabethian times in Britain and although trade and industry were on the increase the ordinary man did not have a comfortable time. Of course the Black death was still a problem also in Europe at this time and there were famines in the 1590's.

Elizabethan England faced a mounting economic problem as the poor became poorer, and a growing army of vagabonds and beggars roamed the streets and countryside. In an attempt to curb the problem, the government passed a series of strict Poor Laws.....
...

the country was also hit by a number of poor harvests, particularly in the 1590s, which put increasing pressure on a limited supply of food. The resulting rise in food prices led, in some cases, to starvation amongst those who could not afford to pay. In 1563, wages were further affected by a government move to curb inflation. The Statute of Artificers set upper wage limits for skilled workers such as butchers or carpenters but the unfortunate result was that, as prices rose, wages could not reflect these increases. Again, the standard of living dropped for many workers......
...

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/tudors/poverty_01.shtml

Ordinary people had a low life expectancy and the average for all in Britain in this period of time was 42 years old.

Life in Mughal India then is the alternative. In 'Indian summer', Alex Von Tunzelmann writes that Elizabeths emissaries to the Mughals were 'overwhelmed: both Agra and Fatehpur Sikri were far larger than London, and many times more wonderous.' (pg 13). The Mughal empire at this time (late 16th century) was already larger than the whole of Europe (from same book).

The Mughal emperors were keen patrons of education, and there was considerable development in this area. In fact one of the duties of the public works department, Shuhra-I-Am was to build schools and colleges. Jahangir passed a law, whereby if a rich man was to die without an heir, his assets would be used by the State to help in the development and maintenance of educational institutes. Shah Jahan although more interested in building monuments, did take some significant educational initiatives like providing scholarships to assist students. Female education also existed in some form during the Mughal period. Girls from rich families were usually able to have an education, through private tuitions at home. The Middle class girls were usually able to attend the same schools as the boys.

Except for the rich, most people lived moderate lives. Abuse of alcohol was not very common, and people ate adequate quantities of food. http://library.thinkquest.org/C006203/cgi-bin/stories.cgi?article=society&section=history/mughals&frame=parent

And a final summary of Mughal society:

During Mughal period the Indian society was in the process of developing into a common society for the religious groups of Hindus and Muslims.Inter-mixing and adaptation of each others culture was fairly common. Among the prevalent social practices the purdah system was one of that but it was practiced more by the women of upper classes. The child marriage was prevalent. Though polygamy was prevalent in upper sections of society the common people followed monogamy.

Dowry system was common in Hindu society. The sati was prevalent though Akbar tried to discourage sati by issuing orders but he could not forbid it altogether.Aurangzeb was the only Mughal who issued definite orders in 1664 forbidding sati. The Muslim society was also divided based on the place of origination. The widow remarriage was prevalent in the society. Economically Muslim woman was entitled to a share in the inheritance.

The Hindu society was divided into four castes. The coming of Muslims and their constant condemnation of the caste system made the system more rigid. The Hindu society in order to strengthen itself recasted the Smritis and tried to bring back from the Islamic fold those Muslims who were converts from Hinduism.

It was a common practice to maintain a large contingent of slaves both males and females. The prisoners of war were generally the main constituent of this system. They were supposed to perform every task free of cost. But they were not subject to torture.

The lower class comprised of the cultivators,artisans,small traders, shop-keepers ,household servants, slaves etc.Most of them were condemned to live a hard life. Their lives were simple and their belongings were meagre. http://www.historytuition.com/medieval_india/mughal-empire/society.html

So there were similarities but comparison is difficult. It seems that the Mughal empire at this time was the largest in existence and should have had nothing to fear from Britain.

Yahew

Plassey is actually in celebration of the major victory by the British East India company in 1757, however Itish involvement as leaders over there is largely Anglo-Irish.

The only actual "Conquest" as such was (as with a lot of the British empire) from Spain and France rather than indigenous people.

What now? The Spanish and French invaded India?
The Portuguese did, and their colony is the richest part of the Indian continent.

Britain ran India, it didn't colonise it, but it was the colonial power. The latter does not always entail the former.

MarchDub

jonniebgood1 wrote: »

The ideological origins of the "British empire" are sometimes traced back to the late 1570's with Elizabeth I philosopher John Dee recording the term in his writings. l

John Dee is also credited with coming up the term "British Isles" - the thinking being if you can frame it as 'geography' then it can surreptitiously become political. The notion that 'geography is destiny' was at play here. He also tried to re-frame the North Sea as the Great Brittanic Sea -

MarchDub

One of the significant characters in the conquest of India from the British side is Robert Clive - known 'heroically' as 'Clive of India'.

Back in the day he was also drawn as a great hero in the English comics that used to be avidly read by Irish kids of my generation back in the 50s. Before some of us got to read the actual historic documents!

I'm not vouching for historic value of the following link - but you can get an idea of how he was made into such a 'heroic' figure.

The founder of the British Indian Empire, Robert Clive, is popularly known as “Clive of India”. The Battle of Plassey is often described by his admirers as his “finest hour”, when he used his skills and genius to divide the enemy and score a spectacular victory. He had under his command about 800 British and European forces complemented by 2,000 native sepoys. His enemy, Sirajuddaula the Nawab (independent ruler) of Bengal, had 50,000 troops under his command. When they met on the field of Plassey on the morning of 23 June 1757, most of the Nawab’s commanders not only did not join in the battle, but actually misled the Bengal ruler to a pathetic defeat.[/FONT][/SIZE]

http://www.the-eastindiacompany.org/Robert_Clive.html

jonniebgood1

Yahew wrote: »

What now? The Spanish and French invaded India?
The Portuguese did, and their colony is the richest part of the Indian continent.

In the early 1600's the main competitors for 'business' were British and French companies followed by Dutch companies. Portugese bases were quickly subsumed and eventually with greater support from government (proposals for competitor companies were rejected by the house of commons in 1730) the British east India company became dominant (Raj. Laurence James. pg 15-16). Their profits were larger than their competitors so they grew larger.

jonniebgood1

MarchDub wrote: »

One of the significant characters in the conquest of India from the British side is Robert Clive - known 'heroically' as 'Clive of India'.

Back in the day he was also drawn as a great hero in the English comics that used to be avidly read by Irish kids of my generation back in the 50s. Before some of us got to read the actual historic documents!
[/URL]

Robert Clive seems to be a man of few morals in what I have read of him. He went to India as a junior clerk for the east India company in 1744 so had quite alot of success. By 1757 he was leading troops into battle as per MD post.

The company sent in relief troops from Fort St. George of the Madras headquarters. The troops led by Robert Clive and Admiral Watson retook Calcutta on 2nd January, 1757. The treaty of Alinagar was signed between the Nawab and the Company.

However Clive's military ambitions were on the ascendancy. His troops captured the French settlement of Chandernagore. He tempted Siraj's uncle Mir Jafar to ally with him in exchange for the Nawab's position. On 23rd June, 1757, the Company troops marched against Siraj. Betrayed by his own men Siraj was defeated in the Battle of Plassey, which is said to have lasted only a few hours. He was soon assassinated in his capital Murshidabad. From being traders, the Company turned kingmakers in Bengal and Mir Jafar was installed as the new Nawab. Clive got his pound of flesh from the Nawab in terms of 234,000 pounds and was awarded an annual salary of 30,000 pounds per year. This made him one of the richest Britons in the world. The company also secure rights over a large area south of Calcutta. Construction of a new Fort William was started and was completed in 16 years in 1773. These events led to the rise of Calcutta and the decline of Murshidabad. http://www.indhistory.com/siraj-ud-daulah.html

So Clive had massive personal financial gain from his role despite him being against the attack at Plassey in an initial vote.

Ambiguous messages were coming in from Mir Jafar and Clive was moving into a dangerous situation against heavy odds. He seems to have had a crisis of confidence and summoned his officers to a council of war on June 21st. The majority, including Clive, voted against action. http://www.historytoday.com/richard-cavendish/battle-plassey

jonniebgood1

A helpful timeline below for an overview of the development of the East India company that helps understand how the position came about for colonial rule:

A British Imperialism in India Timeline
1600 –The East India Company, a group of British merchants, is created. The East India
Company was given exclusive trading rights in the East Indies
1613- Trading Post at Surat established
1615 - The company acquires its first territory in Bombay when Sir Thomas Roe meets
the Mughal Emperor Jhanghir and gains the right to build a factory in Surat. This factory
was later to be followed by many factories and trading posts along the Indian Coasts.
1717 – the Mughal Emperor exempts the East India Company from paying the standard
customs and duties.
1744 - 1763 - Anglo-French War In India. The actual onset of the struggles arose from
Anglo-French commercial and political rivalry in India and political rivalry in Europe.
There were a number of conflicts between the two countries over this period. Yet, it
ended with the Treaty Of Paris, which stipulated an end of French presence in India,
which allowed Britain to expand to control India’s government and markets. This is also
reflected in the conflict between the two countries in Europe and the Americas at the
same time.
1756- The “Black Hole of Calcutta” episode takes place. The Muslim ruler of Bengal had
kidnapped and killed Company men in Calcutta. The result was the company sent Robert
Clive to handle the situation. Historians now question the legitimacy of this story and
some believe that it was a myth perpetuated by the EIC to legitimize their expansion in
the sub continent.
1757 – The Battle of Plassey occurs. After The East India Company backed another
player in a local power struggle and fortified Fort William without the local leader’s
permission. Siraj Ud Daulah attacked and captured Fort William. The East India
Company under Clive regains control, kill this prince and take his territory of Bengal.
1773 – Regulating Act is approved. This act added the positions of a Governor-General
and a council to supervise the company’s actions in India. These positions were
appointed by parliament.
1784- India Act, which limited the power of the East India Company, was enacted. This
act also gave more power to the Governor-General. These two acts reveal the trend of
diminishing EIC power and increasing the power of the British government in the subcontinent.
As a result Cornwallis reforms the Civil Service and the tax collection
methods in attempts to curb corruption in the systems.
1792 - The EIC defeats the Marathas and Tippu Sultan of Mysore so they expand their
territorial control.
1857-1858 - Mutiny of the Indian Army at Barrackpore, The Rebellion becomes a War of
Independence. The Indian Mutiny started in Meerut when angry Sepoys broke open the
town jail and released their comrades, who had refused to bite the new cartridges. They
had refused to bite the cartridges because they were made with beef fat which Hindus are
not allowed to eat. The mutineers joined by other unhappy Indians killed many English
settlers and Christians in the area. They attacked European trading posts, homes and
barracks across India under the last Mughal Emperor, Bahadur Shah. The massacre at
Meerut led the British to retaliate who countered this rebellion so they could re-establish
British rule in India. Bahadur Shah was removed from power and the British Crown takes
over India. This is the beginning of the Raj and the East India Company’s political
control in India was dismantled. http://www.ecfs.org/projects/eastwest/Timelines/indiatimeline.pdf

Drake66

jonniebgood1 wrote: »

1757 – The Battle of Plassey occurs. After The East India Company backed another
player in a local power struggle and fortified Fort William without the local leader’s
permission. Siraj Ud Daulah attacked and captured Fort William. The East India
Company under Clive regains control, kill this prince and take his territory of Bengal.

Which gave the company complete control of its opium trade; and allowed them to start smuggling it wholesale into China. The Pablo Escobars of their time.

padma

guns and superior weaponry played a part in showing a military might on taking over half of the world at the time.

Missent

One of the foremost leaders of the EIC army during the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857 was General Nicholson who was born in Lisburn and there is a massive statue to him in Dungannon School. He died at Delhi in September 1857 when he lead an assault against very heavily defended positions during the EIC's successful retaking of the city from the rebels. I think I've read that over half of the European soldiers in the EIC army at the time were Irish-born as many thousands enlisted from here as privates during the recruitment campaigns around Ireland.

Unique story about Nicholson is that during the course of the Rebellion of 1857 he visited a house for dinner and was said to have heard the chefs arranging to poison the guests. He immediately arranged for them all to be suspended from the nearest tree. When he came back, he was asked where he had been. His reply was "I've just been killing your cooks"!

jonniebgood1

Missent wrote: »

One of the foremost leaders of the EIC army during the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857 was General Nicholson who was born in Lisburn and there is a massive statue to him in Dungannon School. He died at Delhi in September 1857 when he lead an assault against very heavily defended positions during the EIC's successful retaking of the city from the rebels. I think I've read that over half of the European soldiers in the EIC army at the time were Irish-born as many thousands enlisted from here as privates during the recruitment campaigns around Ireland.

The economic situation in Ireland often meant that a life in the army was often a very attractive option for Irishmen, particularly if they had no inheritance of land coming their way.

pedroeibar1

Missent wrote: »

One of the foremost leaders of the EIC army during the Sepoy Rebellion of 1857 was General Nicholson who was born in Lisburn and there is a massive statue to him in Dungannon School.

That is a very interesting family - Charles Allen (Plain Tales of the Raj) writes about them in another of his books, 'Soldier Sahibs' - another good read, and perhaps one that should have been looked at by some militaries/politicos before the last venture into Afghanistan.
There is more on him here
http://www.craigavonhistoricalsociety.org.uk/rev/mcelroythenicholsons.html

JohnFalstaff

One of the executed leaders of the 1916 Rising - Michael Mallin - served with the British Army in India as a member of the Royal Fusiliers. He spent around six years there and the letters he wrote home during that time reveal an increasing unease with his role as a member of an occupying force.

Mallin took part in the Tirah Campaign in 1897-98 which involved retaking the Khyber Pass. He saw first hand how the native Afridis tribes successfully employed hit-and-run guerilla tactics instead of engaging the British forces directly. Later on in his life, - in his role as Chief of Staff of the Irish Citizen Army - Mallin tried to impress upon the workers how effective these tactics could be in a rebellion. Mallin is known to have disagreed with the military plans drawn up for the 1916 Rising, but he carried out his orders and took command of the main body of the Citizen Army that occupied Stephen's Green on the Easter Monday.

Snickers Man

I believe the Plassey tech park in Limerick is sited on or near land once owned by Robert Clive, who named the area after his great victory over the French and their Indian allies.

There was much Irish involvement in India, especially on the military side. The Indian Mutiny remains the conflict in which the highest number of Victoria Crosses were awarded to men born in Ireland, more than either of the World Wars.

The program "Who do you Think you Are" has also revealed some clues as to the extent of Irish involvement in the armed forces in India. Alistair McGowan comes from a long line of Anglo-Indian McGowans. When he traced his first European born McGowan ancestor he found that he was not, as he would have thought, born in Scotland but was instead from Ireland.

Joe Duffy had an ancestor buried in Ahmednagar in northern India. It was a military base. Another famous "Irishman" born in the same town was Spike Milligan.

Many of the European soldiers in the East India Company's private regiments were Irishmen. Testament to this fact was the renaming, during Army reforms in the late 19th century, of several "Indian" regiments as Irish ones. Eg the Bengal Fusiliers became the Royal Munster Fusiliers; the Madras and Bombay Fusiliers were merged and renamed the Royal Dublin Fusiliers and the Madras Regiment of Foot was merged into the Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers.

Not all the Irish were foot soldiers. Many achieved high rank in the Indian Civil Service, among them several good Catholic and indeed nationalist boys. Among these were James McNeill, brother of Eoin who became Governor General of the Irish Free State. And more notoriously Michael Francis O'Dwyer, who as Lieutenant Governor of the Punjab, presided over the infamous Amritsar Massacre of Indian civilians by British-led troops under the command of the Irish educated General Dyer.

O'Dwyer had provoked the unrest of the time by banning two prominent Indian nationalists from entering the city and gave Dyer's murderous actions his full backing. He was eventually assassinated in London by an Indian survivor of the massacre in 1940.

pedroeibar1

Snickers Man wrote: »

Not all the Irish were foot soldiers. Many achieved high rank in the Indian Civil Service,

O'Dwyer's homestead is very near the Ballykisteen Golf & Country Club.

The Stokes family is another example of Irish in India; several brothers in several generations were heavily involved in army or government in India. Sir Henry was a senior administrator in Madras, as was his brother Sir Gabriel. Whiteley Stokes was another, who in addition to writing several books on Indian Law was the historian and Celtic studies scholar who published thousands of pages of glosses of the TCD Irish manuscripts from the pre 11th century period.